====== Neural crest stem cell ======

[[Neural crest cell]]s (NCCs) are born during vertebrate embryogenesis within the dorsal margins of the closing neural folds. Initially, they are integrated within the neuroepithelium where they are morphologically indistinguishable from the other neural epithelial cells. Upon induction by signals that come from contact-mediated tissue interactions between the neural plate and the surface ectoderm, NCCs delaminate through an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and start migrating extensively to several different locations in the embryo where they contribute to a remarkably diverse array of different tissue types ranging from the peripheral nervous system (PNS) to the craniofacial skeleton
((Sauka-Spengler T, Bronner-Fraser M. A gene regulatory network orchestrates
neural crest formation. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2008 Jul;9(7):557-68. doi:
10.1038/nrm2428. Epub 2008 Jun 4. Review. PubMed PMID: 18523435.
)).
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Multipotent [[neural crest]] [[stem cell]]s (NCSCs) were differentiated from induced [[pluripotent stem cell]]s, embedded in the [[hydrogel]] on the outer surface of [[nanofibrous]] [[graft polymer]]s, and implanted into rat carotid arteries by anastomosis. After 3 months, NCSCs differentiated into smooth muscle cells (SMCs) near the outer surface of the polymer grafts; in contrast, NCSCs differentiated into glial cells in the most part of the hydrogel. Atomic force microscopy demonstrated a stiffer matrix near the polymer surface but much lower stiffness away from the polymer graft. Consistently, in vitro studies confirmed that stiff surface induced SMC genes whereas soft surface induced glial genes. These results suggest that the scaffold's mechanical properties play an important role in directing stem cell differentiation in vivo, which has important implications in biomaterials design for stem cell delivery and tissue engineering
((Zhu Y, Li X, Janairo RRR, Kwong G, Tsou AD, Chu JS, Wang A, Yu J, Wang D, Li
S. Matrix stiffness modulates the differentiation of neural crest stem cells in
vivo. J Cell Physiol. 2018 Oct 26. doi: 10.1002/jcp.27518. [Epub ahead of print] 
PubMed PMID: 30368818.
)).