====== Fallacy ======

A **fallacy** is a flaw in reasoning that leads to **invalid**, **misleading**, or **unjustified conclusions**. Fallacies may appear logical on the surface but fail under critical scrutiny due to errors in argument structure, use of evidence, or assumptions.

===== Types of Fallacies =====
  * **Logical fallacies:** Errors in the structure of an argument (e.g., circular reasoning, false dilemma)
  * **Statistical fallacies:** Misuse or misinterpretation of data (e.g., correlation ≠ causation, sampling bias)
  * **Rhetorical fallacies:** Use of persuasive language to obscure weak evidence (e.g., appeal to emotion, authority)

===== Common in Scientific Literature =====
  * [[sample_size_fallacy|Sample Size Fallacy]]
  * [[overgeneralization|Overgeneralization]]
  * [[publication_bias|Publication Bias]]
  * [[rhetorical_inflation|Rhetorical Inflation]]
  * Misuse of **p-values** or **confidence intervals**
  * Drawing **causal inferences** from **observational data**

===== Why It Matters =====
  * Fallacies **undermine scientific credibility**
  * They can **mislead readers**, clinicians, and policymakers
  * Critical appraisal depends on recognizing and avoiding fallacious reasoning

===== Examples =====
  * “This small study showed improvement, so the treatment must be effective.” → [[sample_size_fallacy|Sample Size Fallacy]]
  * “If the drug worked in healthy young men, it will work in elderly women too.” → [[overgeneralization|Overgeneralization]]
  * “It’s published in a top journal, so it must be true.” → Appeal to authority

===== Related Concepts =====
  * [[bias|Bias]]
  * [[critical_review|Critical Appraisal]]
  * [[evidence_based_medicine|Evidence-Based Medicine]]
  * [[causality_vs_correlation|Causality vs. Correlation]]

===== See Also =====
  * [[logical_fallacies|List of Logical Fallacies]]
  * [[statistical_misinterpretation|Common Statistical Errors]]
  * [[research_ethics|Research Integrity and Ethics]]