====== Endoscopic approaches ======

Endoscopic procedures may be performed purely endoscopic, for example for the treatment of occlusive hydrocephalus and cystic lesions or in combination with the operating microscope for example for the treatment of large tumors of the skull base or vascular lesions. The latter technique is named endoscope-assisted microsurgery (EAM). If endoscopes are used as the only optical tool but manipulations performed along the scope, it is referred to as endoscope-controlled microsurgery (ECM). This technique is recently more and more applied for transnasal skull base surgery.

Endoscopic surgery and [[endoscope]]-assisted [[microsurgery]] are part of the management paradigm for many [[neurosurgical disease]]s.


Improvements in endoscopic techniques in [[neurosurgery]] have led to their being utilized not only for [[endonasal approach]]es to the [[skull base]] but also as an adjuvant in open [[cranial]] surgery.
((Cavallo LM, Messina A, Cappabianca P, et al. Endoscopic endonasal surgery of the
midline skull base: anatomical study and clinical considerations. Neurosurgical focus. Jul
15 2005;19(1):E2.))
((Cavallo LM, Messina A, Gardner P, et al. Extended endoscopic endonasal approach to
the pterygopalatine fossa: anatomical study and clinical considerations. Neurosurgical
focus. Jul 15 2005;19(1):E5.))
((Kassam A, Snyderman CH, Mintz A, Gardner P, Carrau RL. Expanded endonasal
approach: the rostrocaudal axis. Part I. Crista galli to the sella turcica. Neurosurgical
focus. Jul 15 2005;19(1):E3.))
((Kassam AB, Gardner P, Snyderman C, Mintz A, Carrau R. Expanded endonasal
approach: fully endoscopic, completely transnasal approach to the middle third of the clivus, petrous bone, middle cranial fossa, and infratemporal fossa. Neurosurgical focus. Jul 15 2005;19(1):E6.))
((Kassam AB, Snyderman C, Gardner P, Carrau R, Spiro R. The expanded endonasal approach: a fully endoscopic transnasal approach and resection of the odontoid process: technical case report. Neurosurgery. Jul 2005;57(1 Suppl):E213; discussion E213.))
((Fischer G, Oertel J, Perneczky A. Endoscopy in aneurysm surgery. Neurosurgery. Jun 2012;70(2 Suppl Operative):184-190; discussion 190-181.))
((Fries G, Perneczky A. Endoscope-assisted brain surgery: part 2--analysis of 380 procedures. Neurosurgery. Feb 1998;42(2):226-231; discussion 231-222.))
((Perneczky A, Fries G. Endoscope-assisted brain surgery: part 1--evolution, basic concept, and current technique. Neurosurgery. Feb 1998;42(2):219-224; discussion 224-215.))
((Kalavakonda C, Sekhar LN, Ramachandran P , Hechl P . Endoscope-assisted microsurgery for intracranial aneurysms. Neurosurgery. Nov 2002;51(5):1119-1126; discussion 1126- 1117.))
((Apuzzo ML, Heifetz MD, Weiss MH, Kurze T. Neurosurgical endoscopy using the side- viewing telescope. Journal of neurosurgery. Mar 1977;46(3):398-400.)).
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see [[Endoscopic skull base surgery]]

see [[Endoscopic surgery for intracerebral hemorrhage]].

see [[Intraventricular neuroendoscopy]].

=== Endoscopic endonasal approach for pituitary neuroendocrine tumor ===
[[Endoscopic endonasal approach]] for [[pituitary neuroendocrine tumor]]

[[Percutaneous Endoscopic Lumbar Discectomy]]


==== Endoscopic superior eyelid transorbital approach ====
[[Endoscopic superior eyelid transorbital approach]]